Direct Environmental Lead Detection by Photoluminescent Perovskite Formation with Nanogram Sensitivity.

Although the global ban on leaded gasoline has markedly reduced lead poisoning, many other environmental sources of lead exposure, such as paint, pipes, mines, and recycling sites remain. Existing methods to identify these sources are either costly or unreliable. We report here a new, sensitive, and inexpensive lead detection method that relies on the formation of a perovskite semiconductor. The method only requires spraying the material of interest with methylammonium bromide and observing whether photoluminesence occurs under UV light to indicate the presence of lead. The method detects as little as 1.0 ng/mm2 of lead by the naked eye and 50 pg/mm2 using a digital photo camera. We exposed more than 50 different materials to our reagent and found no false negatives or false positives. The method readily detects lead in soil, paint, glazing, cables, glass, plastics, and dust and could be widely used for testing the environment and preventing lead poisoning.

Neurotoxicity and Outcomes from Developmental Lead Exposure: Persistent or Permanent?

BACKGROUND: Childhood lead poisoning remains an important public health issue in the United States, as well as elsewhere in the world. Although primary prevention is a major goal and it is critically important to keep children from getting poisoned, it is also important to explore ways to reduce the neurotoxic effects of lead in those children already poisoned. Whether lead-induced neurotoxicity and its related adverse outcomes are viewed as "permanent" or "persistent" may influence the way in which potential remediation efforts are considered for improving outcomes from childhood lead poisoning. OBJECTIVES: The objective of this commentary was to discuss the ideas of permanence and persistence in relation to the direct neurotoxic effects of lead on the brain and the resulting adverse outcomes from these effects. Recent new insights regarding potential mitigation of lead-induced neurotoxic effects on brain and behavior are considered along with clinical information on neurorehabilitation to suggest potential strategies for improving cognitive/behavioral outcomes in lead-poisoned children. DISCUSSION: The distinction between permanent and persistent in regard to lead-induced neurotoxicity and its resulting outcomes may have broad implications for public health policies in response to the problem of childhood lead exposure. The term permanent implies that the damage is irreversible with little chance of improvement. However, there is evidence that at least some of the adverse cognitive/behavioral outcomes from lead exposure are persistent rather than permanent and potentially amenable, under the appropriate circumstances, to some level of mitigation. This author recommends that clinical, interventional research efforts be devoted to exploring optimal neurorehabilitative and enrichment conditions to stimulate plasticity and enhance functioning to determine the extent to which promising results from preclinical studies of lead-induced brain damage and the mitigation of these effects can be successfully translated to humans. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP12371.

Redlining and Lead Poisoning: Causes and Consequences.

In 1934, the Federal Housing Authority precluded mortgage loans to residents of neighborhoods with non-White families or where housing was deteriorated; these were declared "hazardous" and labeled red on maps. In 1962 three redlined north Brooklyn neighborhoods had 41 children, all Black and Puerto Rican, with lead levels >60ug/dL. A review of public polices in the U.S. from 1898 to the present revealed that lead poisoning followed an income gradient with multiple disproportionate effects on non-White children in redlined neighborhoods. The poisonings diminished when federal and local regulations prevented lead exposure. While redlining had profound influences on both likelihood and severity of lead poisoning and its consequences, it was a mediator of effects. The principal causes were federal policies failing to prevent environmental contamination and local governments failing to prevent exposure.

Assessment and Prevention of Lead Poisoning in Refugee Populations.

Lead is a neurotoxin, and there are no safe blood lead levels identified for children. Even low levels of lead in blood have been shown to permanently harm the brain, affecting a child's development, intelligence, and academic achievement. In the U.S., refugee children are at an increased risk for lead poisoning. Preventing lead exposure can reduce damage to children's health. It is imperative that clinicians conduct an exposure assessment and offer anticipatory guidance to prevent exposure to lead, especially with sources such as cosmetics, ceramics, herbs, and toys.

Hidden hazards and screening policy: Predicting undetected lead exposure in Illinois.

Lead exposure still threatens children's health despite policies aiming to identify lead exposure sources. Some US states require de jure universal screening while others target screening, but little research examines the relative benefits of these approaches. We link lead tests for children born in Illinois between 2010 and 2014 to geocoded birth records and potential exposure sources. We train a random forest regression model that predicts children's blood lead levels (BLLs) to estimate the geographic distribution of undetected lead poisoning. We use these estimates to compare de jure universal screening against targeted screening. Because no policy achieves perfect compliance, we analyze different incremental screening expansions. We estimate that 5,819 untested children had a BLL ≥5µg/dL, in addition to the 18,101 detected cases. 80% of these undetected cases should have been screened under the current policy. Model-based targeted screening can improve upon both the status quo and expanded universal screening.

High blood lead levels of children in a gold mining community in Osun State, Nigeria: an urgent call for action.

BACKGROUND: Environmental exposure from artisanal gold mining activities is a major risk for high blood lead levels (BLLs) in children. Over the last decade, artisanal gold mining activities have been on a sharp increase in some parts of Nigeria. This study compared BLLs of children in the mining community of Itagunmodi and a 50-km distant non-mining community of Imesi-Ile, Osun State, Nigeria. METHODS: This community-based study investigated 234 apparently healthy children, with 117 each from Itagunmodi and Imesi-Ile. Relevant history, examination and laboratory findings including BLLs were recorded and analysed. RESULTS: All participants had BLLs above the cut-off value of 5 µg/dl. However, the mean BLL of subjects living in the gold-mining community (24.2±5.3 µg/dl) was significantly higher than for children in the non-mining area of Imesi-Ile (19.5±6.4 µg/dl; p<0.001). Children in the gold mining community were 3.07 times more likely to have a BLL ≥20 µg/dl than those in the non-mining environment (odds ratio [OR] 3.07 [95% confidence interval {CI} 1.79 to 5.2], p<0.001). Similarly, the odds of having a BLL ≥30 µg/dl was 7.84 times more likely among children living in gold mining Itagunmodi than in Imesi-Ile (OR 7.84 [95% CI 2.32 to 26.46], p<0.0001). BLL was not associated with socio-economic and nutritional status of the participants. CONCLUSIONS: In addition to introduction and enforcement of safe mining practices, regular screening for lead toxicity is advocated for children in these communities.

Portable sensing devices for smart healthcare and prevention of lead poisoning.

Lead (Pb) poisoning can damage human bodies silently, without specific symptoms or conspicuous warning signs. To provide safe and user-friendly tools for detecting heavy metals at low concentrations, scientists have developed and optimized versatile biosensors. To practically employ the developed biosensors specific for Pb (eg, the optimized Met-lead 1.44 M1), smartphone applications designed for user convenience and are easily operable for the on-site detection of Pb in environmental water, drinking water, food, and blood/urine are urgently needed. To establish a monitoring system for home health maintenance, a portable device and useful apps installed on a smartphone can be integrated, and the data acquired can be sent to and stored in the cloud for further analysis and evidence preservation. With the high transmissions speeds for 4G and 4G wireless Internet, such a system can be applied for health protection; water-quality data can be provided by anyone and publicly shared for display on smartphone interfaces, alerting individuals of heavy metal contamination. In this review, we describe recent developments in heavy metal-sensing devices, including home health maintenance systems, which have been successfully and practically applied to prevent heavy metal Pb poisoning.

Improving Equitability and Inclusion for Testing and Detection of Lead Poisoning in US Children.

Policy Points Child lead poisoning is associated with socioeconomic inequity and perpetuates health inequality. Methods for testing and detection of child lead poisoning are ill suited to the current demographics and characteristics of the problem. A three-pronged revision of current testing approaches is suggested. Employing the suggested revisions can immediately increase our national capacity for equitable, inclusive testing and detection. ABSTRACT: Child lead poisoning, the longest-standing child public health epidemic in US history, is associated with socioeconomic inequity and perpetuates health inequality. Removing lead from children's environments ("primary prevention") is and must remain the definitive solution for ending child lead poisoning. Until that goal can be realized, protecting children's health necessarily depends on the adequacy of our methods for testing and detection. Current methods for testing and detection, however, are no longer suited to the demographics and magnitude of the problem. We discuss the potential deployment and feasibility of a three-pronged revision of current practices including: 1) acceptance of capillary samples for final determination of lead poisoning, with electronic documentation of "clean" collection methods submitted by workers who complete simple Centers for Disease Control and Prevention-endorsed online training and certification for capillary sample collection; 2) new guidance specifying the analysis of capillary samples by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry or graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry with documented limit of detection ≤0.2 µg/dL; and 3) adaptive "census tract-specific" universal testing and monitoring guidance for children from birth to 10 years of age. These testing modifications can bring child blood lead level (BLL) testing into homes and communities, immediately increasing our national capacity for inclusive and equitable detection and monitoring of dangerous lower-range BLLs in US children.

Evaluation of academic detailing to educate clinicians regarding childhood lead poisoning prevention: a pilot study.

CONTEXT: Environmental exposures are associated with approximately 19% of disease globally, and exposure to neurotoxic chemicals is estimated to cost the United States $50 billion per year. Despite calls from the Institute of Medicine to increase training for clinicians regarding environmental health since the 1990s, there is still little instruction in environmental health for clinicians. This leaves gaps in knowledge that need to be bridged through outreach and education to practicing clinicians. Academic detailing (AD) is an educational intervention associated with improved prescribing practices in healthcare professionals but has not been applied to preventive or environmental health. Childhood lead exposure is a common condition associated with lifetime increased risk of cognitive and behavioral problems. Ohio has more than 2 million homes built before 1978, making exposure to lead-based paint a significant public health problem; however, only 50% of high-risk children are tested for lead. Few receive health promotion information regarding lead poisoning prevention, in part because this is not a part of training for healthcare providers (HCPs). OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this study were twofold: (1) implement a pilot of AD sessions on the topic of childhood lead poisoning prevention with frontline HCPs and their staff in different practice settings; and (2) evaluate the acceptability of these training sessions utilizing quantitative and qualitative methods. METHODS: Physicians, nurses, social workers, community health workers, and clinical office staff were recruited from clinics who care for children at high risk for lead exposure. Trainings consisting of small group AD style sessions were presented at these sites. Learning objectives included increasing knowledge regarding lead testing requirements, enabling identification of lead's impact on child development and equipping participants to provide anticipatory guidance for parents regarding lead poisoning prevention. Participants provided feedback through an anonymous questionnaire and qualitative feedback. RESULTS: There were 46 participants (12 physicians in practice/in training, 21 nursing or office staff, and 13 community health or social workers); more than 90% of the participants reported that the training achieved its learning objectives. Small-group presentations were preferred (91%); approximately 39% of participants requested an online format. Participants preferred that the presenters be either a public health or lead clinical expert, and they suggested that future activities include clinical vignettes. CONCLUSIONS: Academic-detailing style training shows promise in promoting childhood lead poisoning prevention for frontline HCPs.

Lead Levels in Spices From Market Basket and Home Lead Investigation Samples in North Carolina.

OBJECTIVES: Lead investigators in North Carolina found evidence that contaminated spices may contribute to children's elevated blood lead levels. We compared lead levels in samples of spices and other consumable products by country of purchase to inform consumer safety interventions and regulations. METHODS: From February 1, 2011, through October 22, 2020, North Carolina lead investigators sampled spices and other consumable products from 103 homes of children with confirmed elevated blood lead levels. In 2017, the study team purchased 50 products frequently sampled during lead investigations, as a "market basket" sample, from local stores in or near Raleigh, North Carolina. The State Laboratory of Public Health analyzed 423 product samples using mass spectrometry. We extracted environmental sample results from lead investigations from the North Carolina Electronic Lead Surveillance System. RESULTS: The median market basket lead result was 0.07 mg/kg (SD = 0.17); the maximum lead result was 0.88 mg/kg. The median home lead investigation sample result was 0.26 mg/kg (SD = 489.44); the maximum lead result was 6504.00 mg/kg in turmeric purchased in India. Among all samples, products purchased in India had more than triple the median lead levels (0.71 mg/kg) of those purchased in the United States (0.19 mg/kg). CONCLUSIONS: Purchasing spices in the United States is an action that consumers can take that may reduce their lead poisoning risk. Regulatory agencies should consider a lead limit of <1 mg/kg as attainable for spices sold in US stores and for ingredients of any foods that may be consumed by children.

Protective effects of Asparagus officinalis (asparagus) against lead toxicity in mice.

One of the most prevalent harmful heavy metals is lead (Pb). It is generally recognized to be harmful to the testicles. Asparagus officinalis has many saponins, flavonoids, and other phenolics with strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. The effects of A. officinalis (asparagus) aqueous extract (AOAE) on testicular damage caused by lead acetate (PbAc) were investigated in this study. In this way, 20 mg/kg PbAc was injected intraperitoneally 2 h after mice were administered 400 mg/kg AOAE orally for 14 days. In the biochemical analysis of testicular tissue, PbAc decreased enzymatic and nonenzymatic antioxidant molecules in testicular tissue, while increasing lipid peroxidation, nitric oxide, inflammatory markers [nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1beta (IL-1 ß), IL-6, and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS)], and apoptotic-related proteins. Additionally, PbAc was discovered to reduce sperm motility and increase the percentage of dead sperm. However, due to its antioxidant qualities, AOAE has been found to reduce oxidative stress, therefore protecting against inflammation and apoptosis. It also allowed the AOAE sperm parameters to restore to their previous values in the control group. According to the findings, AOAE could be a natural substance that could be used to treat Pb-induced testicular toxicity; this protection may be attributed to its anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic effects. However, this study warrants further works to explore in detail the underlying mechanisms of the alleviating effects of AOAE against Pb-induced toxicity and which of its active ingredients is responsible for this protection.

Childhood Lead Poisoning 1970-2022: Charting Progress and Needed Reforms.

CONTEXT: Childhood lead poisoning prevention in the United States was marked by a largely failed medical approach from 1971 to 1990; an emergent (but small) healthy housing primary prevention strategy from 1991 to 2015; and implementation of large-scale proven interventions since then. PROGRAM: Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention & Healthy Housing. METHODS: Historic and recent health and housing data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) and the American Healthy Homes Survey (AHHS) were retrieved to analyze trends and associated policy gaps. EVALUATION: Approximately 590 000 US children aged 1 through 5 years had elevated blood lead levels of 3.5 µg/dL and greater in 2016, and 4.3 million children resided in homes with lead paint in 2019. Despite large improvements, racial and other disparities remain stubbornly and statistically significant. The NHANES and the AHHS require larger sample sizes. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has not published children's blood lead surveillance and NHANES data in several years; the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) has no analogous housing surveillance system; and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) have not updated training, Superfund, and occupational standards in decades. DISCUSSION: The nation has been without a plan and an associated budget for more than 2 decades. Congress has not reformed the nation's main lead poisoning prevention laws in more than 30 years. Such reforms include stopping US companies from producing new residential lead paint in other countries; enabling the disclosure law to identify all residential lead hazards; closing loopholes in federally assisted housing regulations and mortgage insurance standards; harnessing tax policy to help homeowners mitigate lead hazards; streamlining training requirements; increasing the size of health and housing surveys and surveillance systems; and updating housing codes, medical guidance, dust lead standards, training, Superfund, and worker exposure limits. Congress and the president should reauthorize a cabinet-level task force (dormant since 2010) to develop a new strategic plan with an interagency budget to implement it. These reforms will scale and optimize markets, subsidies, enforcement, and other proven interventions to end ineffective, costly, harmful, and irrational cost shifting that threatens children, workers, and affordable housing.

Blood Lead Testing in Flint Before and After Water Contamination.

OBJECTIVE: Lead is a neurotoxicant that negatively affects health. Reducing lead exposure and early detection among children are important public health goals. Our objective with this study was to determine if the September 2015 lead advisory in Flint, Michigan affected lead testing among children when possible exposure was widely publicized. METHOD: This study included 206 001 children born in Michigan from 2013 to 2015 and enrolled in Medicaid, using 2013 to 2017 claims data to determine if and at what age an individual received a lead test. Difference-in-differences regression models were used to compare the receipt of lead tests among children in Flint with other cities in Michigan before and after September 2015, when a lead advisory was issued for the city warning about potential exposure to lead in publicly supplied water. RESULTS: Before the lead advisory, approximately 50% of children in Flint received a lead test by 12 months of age and nearly 75% received a lead test by 24 months of age. After the September 2015 advisory, the receipt of lead tests among children in Flint increased 10 percentage points by 12 months compared with other cities. Effects by 10-month cohorts, as of 2016, revealed a 20-percentage-point increase for children in Flint compared with other cities. CONCLUSIONS: Despite a highly publicized lead advisory, children in Flint enrolled in Medicaid received lead tests earlier, but the proportion of Medicaid-eligible children who were tested did not change. This suggests that increasing lead testing is a difficult policy goal to achieve and, therefore, supports recent efforts focusing on primary prevention to reduce lead exposure.

Health Remedies as a Source of Lead, Mercury, and Arsenic Exposure, New York City, 2010-2019.

Objectives. To describe the types of health remedies collected during poisoning investigations in New York City over a 10-year period that were found to contain high levels of lead, mercury, or arsenic. Methods. Between 2010 and 2019, the New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene collected 584 samples of health remedies during poisoning investigations and store surveys for lead, mercury, or arsenic analysis. Results. There was a significant association between blood lead levels and estimated cumulative daily lead exposures among adult users of rasa shastra Ayurvedic medications. Also, average blood lead levels among adult rasa shastra users were significantly higher than levels among those using other types of non-Ayurvedic health remedies. Conclusions. Rasa shastra Ayurvedic medications can contain very high levels of lead, mercury, and arsenic. This underscores the importance of screening for lead, mercury, and arsenic exposures within at-risk populations. Public Health Implications. The general ease of accessibility to rasa shastra medications raises concerns. There is a need for systemic change that results in primary prevention, that is, removal of the source through policy development and regulatory enforcement in the country of origin. (Am J Public Health. 2022;112(S7):S730-S740. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2022.306906).

Lead Industry Influence in the 21st Century: An Old Playbook for a "Modern Metal".

In recent years, lead poisoning has received increasing attention as lead production continues to grow and the industry shifts the most polluting processes (e.g., smelting ore and recycling batteries) to low- and middle-income countries. The hazards associated with lead exposures have been well known for centuries while the industry actively promoted lead products. Less well known is how the industry continues to promote the "safe and responsible" use of lead and support research to question the underlying science and avoid regulation. Here I explore the historical context for recent actions that the industry has taken to ensure its longevity. Lead industry associations continue to employ some of the same themes that have proven successful in the past. Efforts to forestall regulatory initiatives to reduce emissions and restrict lead applications continue. Large battery manufacturers and recyclers and their associations place blame on informal-sector recycling to draw focus away from their own emissions. They have sought the cooperation of hired scientific experts and have funded United Nations organizations and nongovernmental organizations to deflect attention from their own contributions to global lead poisoning. (Am J Public Health. 2022;112(S7):S723-S729. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2022.306960).